Yeshua Literal Version · YLV

The complete Bible, sixty-six books

The Yeshua Literal Version (YLV) renders the Hebrew and Greek word for word. It may be read without installation, registration or charge; select a book, chapter and verse in the bar above to go directly to the passage. It is set out for easy reading, in paragraphs with section headings, and the original Hebrew and Greek words are gathered into footnotes at the end of each chapter.

66books
1,189chapters
31,167verses
EN · KOtwo languages

Main editionWith the original wordsTransliterated Hebrew and Greek kept in the text · 66 books New TestamentEasy readNo transliterations or brackets · 27 books

Old Testament · 39 books

Old Testament

תּוֹרָה · נְבִיאִים · כְּתוּבִים

Torah · Books of Moses5 books

History12 books

Poetry and Wisdom5 books

Major Prophets5 books

Minor Prophets12 books

New Testament · 27 books

New Testament

εὐαγγέλιον

Chronological view

The Bible in chronological order

The books are arranged by date of writing, following the traditional view; other scholarly views are noted in the introduction to each book below. Job, whose date of writing is unknown, is placed in the period of its setting.

Old Testament
c. 2000–1800 BC
The Patriarchs
Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and Joseph
JobSetting: patriarchal age
c. 1446–1406 BC
The Exodus and the Wilderness
The exodus, the covenant at Sinai, forty years in the wilderness, the writing of the Torah
Genesis15th c. BC Exodus15th c. BC Leviticus15th c. BC Numbers15th c. BC Deuteronomy15th c. BC
c. 1406–1050 BC
Settlement and the Judges
The settlement of Canaan and the age of the judges
Joshua14th c. BC
c. 1050–930 BC
The United Kingdom
Saul, David and Solomon; the building of the First Temple
Judges11th c. BC Ruth10th c. BC 1 Samuel10th c. BC or later 2 Samuel10th c. BC or later PsalmsFrom Moses to after the exile Proverbs10th c. BC Ecclesiastes10th c. BC Song of Songs10th c. BC
930–722 BC
The Divided Kingdom
The division of the kingdom; Assyria destroys the northern kingdom (722)
Joel9th c. BC (traditional)Jonah8th c. BC Amosc. 760 BC Hoseac. 755–715 BC Isaiahc. 740–680 BC Micahc. 735–700 BC
722–586 BC
The Last Years of Judah
The reforms of Hezekiah and Josiah; Babylon captures Jerusalem (586)
Nahum663–612 BC Zephaniahc. 640–622 BC Jeremiahc. 627–580 BC Habakkukc. 609–598 BC
586–539 BC
The Babylonian Exile
The destruction of the Temple, life in exile, Persia conquers Babylon (539)
Ezekielc. 593–571 BC LamentationsShortly after 586 BC ObadiahShortly after 586 BC Daniel6th c. BC 1 KingsMid-6th c. BC 2 KingsAfter 561 BC
539–c. 430 BC
Return and Restoration
The decree of Cyrus, dedication of the Second Temple (516), rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem
Haggai520 BC Zechariah520–518 BC Malachic. 460–430 BC Ezrac. 440 BC Nehemiahc. 430 BC EstherLate 5th c. BC 1 Chronicles5th–4th c. BC 2 Chronicles5th–4th c. BC
c. 430–5 BC
Between the Testaments
Persian, Hellenistic, Hasmonean and Roman rule
No canonical book was written in this period.
New Testament
c. 5 BC–AD 33
The Life of Yeshua
Birth, public ministry, crucifixion, resurrection and ascension
The events of this period are recorded in the four Gospels, written later.
AD 33–c. 60
The Ekklesia Begins and Spreads
Pentecost, the mission to the nations, the Jerusalem council (c. 49), the journeys of Paul
JamesLate 40s AD Galatiansc. AD 48–49 1 Thessaloniansc. AD 50–51 2 Thessaloniansc. AD 51–52 1 Corinthiansc. AD 54–55 2 Corinthiansc. AD 55–56 Romansc. AD 56–57
c. AD 60–68
Paul in Prison; the Gospels Written
Paul imprisoned in Rome, the persecution under Nero (64), the martyrdom of Peter and Paul
MatthewAD 50s–60s MarkLate 50s–60s AD Ephesiansc. AD 60–62 Philippiansc. AD 60–62 Colossiansc. AD 60–62 Philemonc. AD 60–62 LukeAD 60s Actsc. AD 62 1 Timothyc. AD 62–64 Titusc. AD 62–64 1 Peterc. AD 62–64 HebrewsAD 60s 2 Peterc. AD 64–68 2 Timothyc. AD 64–67 Judec. AD 60–80
AD 70–c. 95
After the Temple — the Close of the Apostolic Age
The destruction of the Temple (70), John at Ephesus, exile on Patmos
Johnc. AD 85–95 1 Johnc. AD 85–95 2 Johnc. AD 85–95 3 Johnc. AD 85–95 Revelationc. AD 95

Reference

Introduction to each book

Classification, authorship, date, outline and historical background of each book. Where authorship or date is disputed, the traditional view is given first, followed by the scholarly view.

Torah · Books of Moses

GenesisMoses (traditional view; some scholars regard it as an edited compilation of several sources) · c. 15th century BC (the wilderness period after the Exodus; some scholars date it to the 13th century or later)Genesis begins with the creation of the heavens and the earth, recounts the fall of humanity, the flood, and the dispersion of the nations, and then records the history of the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph. The covenant God made with Abraham is presented as the starting point of the entire history of Israel. The book closes with the family of Jacob settled in Egypt.Details

Classification: Torah · Pentateuch
Author: Moses (traditional view; some scholars regard it as an edited compilation of several sources)
Date: c. 15th century BC (the wilderness period after the Exodus; some scholars date it to the 13th century or later)
Place of writing: Wilderness of Sinai
Length: 50 chapters

Theme Creation and the fall, and the beginning of redemption through the covenant with Abraham

Outline

Chapters 1–11Creation, fall, flood, and Babel — the beginnings of humanity
Chapters 12–24Abraham and the covenant
Chapters 25–36Isaac and Jacob
Chapters 37–50Joseph and the descent into Egypt

Historical background

The patriarchal period is generally dated to the first half of the second millennium BC, the Middle Bronze Age. The principal settings are Ur and Haran in Mesopotamia, Canaan, and Egypt, and the narratives reflect ancient Near Eastern customs of marriage, inheritance, and covenant. Genesis 1–11 is frequently studied in comparison with ancient Near Eastern creation and flood traditions.

Genesis Read →

ExodusMoses (traditional view; some scholars regard it as an edited compilation of several sources) · c. 15th century BC (the wilderness period after the Exodus; some scholars date it to the 13th century or later)Exodus records the deliverance of Israel from slavery in Egypt through Moses and the journey to Mount Sinai. At Sinai, God establishes a covenant with Israel and gives the Ten Commandments and the covenant statutes. The latter part of the book concerns the regulations for the tabernacle and its construction, and it closes with the glory of YHWH filling the tabernacle.Details

Classification: Torah · Pentateuch
Author: Moses (traditional view; some scholars regard it as an edited compilation of several sources)
Date: c. 15th century BC (the wilderness period after the Exodus; some scholars date it to the 13th century or later)
Place of writing: Wilderness of Sinai
Length: 40 chapters

Theme Deliverance from Egypt, the Sinai covenant, and God dwelling among His people

Outline

Chapters 1–15Oppression in Egypt, the call of Moses, the ten plagues, Passover, and the crossing of the sea
Chapters 16–18The wilderness journey to Sinai
Chapters 19–24The Sinai covenant — the Ten Commandments and the covenant statutes
Chapters 25–31Instructions for the tabernacle and the priesthood
Chapters 32–34The golden calf and the renewal of the covenant
Chapters 35–40The construction of the tabernacle and the glory of YHWH

Historical background

The two principal views on the date of the Exodus are the 15th century BC, based on 1 Kings 6:1, and the 13th century BC, based on evidence such as the building of the city of Rameses. Egypt in this period was in its New Kingdom era and exercised strong influence over Canaan. The form of the Sinai covenant is frequently compared with ancient Near Eastern suzerainty treaties.

Exodus Read →

LeviticusMoses (traditional view; some scholars regard it as an edited compilation of priestly tradition) · c. 15th century BC (the wilderness period after the Exodus; some scholars date it to the 13th century or later)Leviticus contains the regulations given at Mount Sinai concerning offerings, the priesthood, purity, the appointed feasts, and holy living. The principle that the people must be holy in order for the holy God to dwell among them runs throughout the book. The Day of Atonement (chapter 16) stands at its center.Details

Classification: Torah · Pentateuch
Author: Moses (traditional view; some scholars regard it as an edited compilation of priestly tradition)
Date: c. 15th century BC (the wilderness period after the Exodus; some scholars date it to the 13th century or later)
Place of writing: Wilderness of Sinai
Length: 27 chapters

Theme Living as a holy people before the holy God

Outline

Chapters 1–7Regulations for the offerings
Chapters 8–10The ordination of the priests and the beginning of their service
Chapters 11–15Regulations concerning clean and unclean
Chapter 16The Day of Atonement
Chapters 17–26Regulations for holiness — daily life, the appointed feasts, the sabbatical year, and the jubilee
Chapter 27Vows and dedications

Historical background

Leviticus records instruction given while Israel remained at Mount Sinai, immediately after the tabernacle was erected at the close of Exodus. Its sacrificial system and purity regulations invite comparison with ancient Near Eastern cultic texts, yet they are clearly distinguished by covenant faith in the one God. The regulations for the Sabbath, the appointed feasts, and the jubilee became foundational to Israel's later faith and social order.

Leviticus Read →

NumbersMoses (traditional view; some scholars regard it as an edited compilation of several sources) · c. 15th century BC (the end of the wilderness period; some scholars date it to the 13th century or later)Numbers records the journey of Israel from Mount Sinai through some forty years in the wilderness to the plains of Moab east of the Jordan. Structured around two censuses, it contrasts the Exodus generation, which did not enter the promised land because of unbelief, with the new generation that stands at its threshold. Amid the repeated rebellion of the people, the covenant faithfulness of God is made evident.Details

Classification: Torah · Pentateuch
Author: Moses (traditional view; some scholars regard it as an edited compilation of several sources)
Date: c. 15th century BC (the end of the wilderness period; some scholars date it to the 13th century or later)
Place of writing: Plains of Moab
Length: 36 chapters

Theme Testing and disobedience in the wilderness, and the faithfulness of God who keeps His promise

Outline

Chapters 1–10The census, the ordering of the camp, and the departure from Sinai
Chapters 11–14Complaints, the spies, and the rebellion at Kadesh
Chapters 15–21The wilderness years, priestly duties, and the advance to the east of the Jordan
Chapters 22–25Balaam and Moab, and the incident at Baal-peor
Chapters 26–36The second census and preparations for allotting the land to the new generation

Historical background

The geographical setting of Numbers comprises the Sinai Peninsula, the southern Negev around Kadesh-barnea, the regions of Edom and Moab, and the land east of the Jordan. The victories over Sihon and Og are repeatedly recalled in later historical writings and in the Psalms. An inscription discovered at Deir Alla east of the Jordan (c. 8th century BC) mentions Balaam son of Beor and has drawn considerable scholarly attention.

Numbers Read →

DeuteronomyMoses (traditional view; the account of his death in the final chapter is regarded as a later addition; some scholars regard it as a late monarchic composition) · c. 15th century BC (the end of the wilderness period; some scholars date it to c. 7th century BC)Deuteronomy contains a series of addresses delivered by Moses to the new generation on the plains of Moab, immediately before the crossing of the Jordan. Moses reviews the history of the wilderness years, restates the Torah of the Sinai covenant, and exhorts the people to love YHWH alone and to keep His commandments. The book concludes with the renewal of the covenant, the succession of Joshua, and the death of Moses.Details

Classification: Torah · Pentateuch
Author: Moses (traditional view; the account of his death in the final chapter is regarded as a later addition; some scholars regard it as a late monarchic composition)
Date: c. 15th century BC (the end of the wilderness period; some scholars date it to c. 7th century BC)
Place of writing: Plains of Moab
Length: 34 chapters

Theme The renewal of the covenant and the restatement of the Torah for the generation about to enter the promised land

Outline

Chapters 1–4First address — a review of the wilderness journey
Chapters 5–11Second address — the Ten Commandments, the Shema, and the foundational principles of the covenant
Chapters 12–26Second address (continued) — the statutes and ordinances of the covenant
Chapters 27–30Blessings and curses, and the covenant in Moab
Chapters 31–34The succession of Joshua, the song and blessing of Moses, and the death of Moses

Historical background

Deuteronomy is set in the fortieth year after the Exodus, while Israel was encamped on the plains of Moab preparing to enter Canaan. Its structure is frequently compared with the ancient Near Eastern suzerainty treaty, comprising preamble, historical prologue, stipulations, and blessings and curses. Some scholars associate Deuteronomy with the book of the law discovered in the temple in the reign of Josiah (2 Kings 22).

Deuteronomy Read →

History

JoshuaJoshua (Jewish tradition, with some portions regarded as later additions; some scholars regard it as part of a late monarchic Deuteronomistic History) · c. 14th century BC (the early settlement in Canaan; some scholars date its editing to the 7th–6th centuries BC)Joshua records how Israel, under the leadership of Joshua the successor of Moses, crossed the Jordan, entered and conquered the land of Canaan, and divided it among the tribes. It describes the fulfillment of the promise of the land made to the patriarchs. The book concludes with the renewal of the covenant at Shechem and the death of Joshua.Details

Classification: Historical Books · Former Prophets
Author: Joshua (Jewish tradition, with some portions regarded as later additions; some scholars regard it as part of a late monarchic Deuteronomistic History)
Date: c. 14th century BC (the early settlement in Canaan; some scholars date its editing to the 7th–6th centuries BC)
Place of writing: Canaan
Length: 24 chapters

Theme The fulfillment of the promised land and faithfulness to the covenant

Outline

Chapters 1–5The crossing of the Jordan and preparations for entering Canaan
Chapters 6–12Jericho and Ai, and the southern and northern campaigns
Chapters 13–21The allotment of the land, the cities of refuge, and the Levitical cities
Chapters 22–24The return of the eastern tribes, Joshua's farewell, and the covenant at Shechem

Historical background

The period of Joshua is placed at the transition from the Late Bronze Age to the early Iron Age, and its date is set at either the 14th or the 12th century BC depending on the date assigned to the Exodus. Canaan at this time was divided into city-states under Egyptian influence, and the Amarna letters illuminate its political situation. The archaeological evidence from Jericho, Ai, and Hazor is interpreted in a variety of ways.

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JudgesUnknown (Jewish tradition attributes it to Samuel; some scholars regard it as part of the Deuteronomistic History) · c. 11th century BC (the early monarchy; some scholars date its editing to the 7th–6th centuries BC)Judges records the history of Israel from the death of Joshua to the establishment of the monarchy. A recurring cycle is described: when the people forsake YHWH to serve other gods, they are oppressed by foreign nations; when they cry out, God raises up judges to deliver them. The final section depicts the religious and moral disorder of a time when there was no king in Israel.Details

Classification: Historical Books · Former Prophets
Author: Unknown (Jewish tradition attributes it to Samuel; some scholars regard it as part of the Deuteronomistic History)
Date: c. 11th century BC (the early monarchy; some scholars date its editing to the 7th–6th centuries BC)
Place of writing: Canaan
Length: 21 chapters

Theme The repeated apostasy of a people who forsook the covenant, and the deliverance God granted in their midst

Outline

Chapters 1–2The incomplete conquest and an introduction to the recurring cycle
Chapters 3–8Othniel, Ehud, Deborah and Barak, and Gideon
Chapters 9–12Abimelech, Jephthah, and the minor judges
Chapters 13–16Samson
Chapters 17–21Micah's idol and the migration of Dan, the outrage at Gibeah, and the war against Benjamin

Historical background

The period of the judges extends from approximately the 14th or 12th century BC to the accession of Saul in the 11th century BC. During this time Israel existed as a confederation of tribes without central government and was in conflict with neighboring peoples such as Moab, Midian, Ammon, and the Philistines. The Philistines in particular, drawing on Iron Age technology and their coastal cities, exerted strong pressure on Israel.

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RuthUnknown (Jewish tradition attributes it to Samuel) · c. 10th century BC (the monarchy; some scholars date it to the post-exilic period)Ruth records how, in the period of the judges, Ruth the Moabite accompanied her mother-in-law Naomi to Bethlehem and came to belong to the people of YHWH. Through the marriage of Ruth to Boaz, the kinsman-redeemer, the household of Naomi is restored. The book closes with a genealogy in which Ruth becomes the great-grandmother of David.Details

Classification: Historical Books · Writings (Five Scrolls)
Author: Unknown (Jewish tradition attributes it to Samuel)
Date: c. 10th century BC (the monarchy; some scholars date it to the post-exilic period)
Length: 4 chapters

Theme Restoration through covenant loyalty (hesed) and redemption, and the providence of God leading to the house of David

Outline

Chapter 1From Moab to Bethlehem — the return of Naomi and Ruth
Chapter 2Ruth gleaning in the field of Boaz
Chapter 3The appeal at the threshing floor
Chapter 4Redemption and marriage, and the genealogy leading to David

Historical background

The events of Ruth are set in the period of the judges, with Bethlehem and Moab as the principal locations. Institutions prescribed in the Torah, such as gleaning, redemption of property, and levirate marriage (Leviticus 19, 25; Deuteronomy 25), form the background of the narrative. In the Hebrew Bible it belongs to the Five Scrolls and is traditionally read at the Feast of Weeks (Shavuot).

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1 SamuelCompiled from the records of Samuel, Nathan, and Gad (traditional view; cf. 1 Chronicles 29:29. Some scholars date the editing after the division of the kingdom) · After the late 10th century BC (compiled after the division of the kingdom)The book records the transition from the period of the judges to the monarchy in Israel. It covers the ministry of Samuel, the last judge and a prophet; the accession and failure of Saul, the first king; and the anointing of David and the years of his flight from Saul.Details

Classification: Historical Books · Former Prophets (Nevi'im)
Author: Compiled from the records of Samuel, Nathan, and Gad (traditional view; cf. 1 Chronicles 29:29. Some scholars date the editing after the division of the kingdom)
Date: After the late 10th century BC (compiled after the division of the kingdom)
Length: 31 chapters

Theme Obedience to YHWH and the beginning of the monarchy

Outline

Chapters 1–7The birth and ministry of Samuel; the fate of the ark of the covenant
Chapters 8–12The people's request for a king and the accession of Saul
Chapters 13–15Saul's disobedience and rejection
Chapters 16–31The anointing of David, Saul's pursuit, and the death of Saul

Historical background

Around the 11th century BC Israel existed as a tribal confederation, while the Philistines of the coastal plain, with their command of iron technology, posed a serious threat. Under this external pressure the demand for a centralized monarchy grew. In the Hebrew Bible, 1 and 2 Samuel originally formed a single book; the division into two derives from the Septuagint.

1 Samuel Read →

2 SamuelCompiled from the records of Nathan, Gad, and others (traditional view; cf. 1 Chronicles 29:29. Some scholars date the editing after the division of the kingdom) · After the late 10th century BC (compiled after the division of the kingdom)The book records the roughly forty-year reign of David, who after the death of Saul became king over Judah and then over all Israel. It covers the capture of Jerusalem, the transfer of the ark, and the Davidic covenant, together with the rebellions and turmoil that befell the royal house after the Bathsheba affair.Details

Classification: Historical Books · Former Prophets (Nevi'im)
Author: Compiled from the records of Nathan, Gad, and others (traditional view; cf. 1 Chronicles 29:29. Some scholars date the editing after the division of the kingdom)
Date: After the late 10th century BC (compiled after the division of the kingdom)
Length: 24 chapters

Theme YHWH's covenant with the house of David and the consequences of sin

Outline

Chapters 1–4David as king of Judah at Hebron
Chapters 5–10The united kingdom, the capture of Jerusalem, and the Davidic covenant (ch. 7)
Chapters 11–12The Bathsheba affair and Nathan's rebuke
Chapters 13–20Strife in the royal house and the revolts of Absalom and Sheba
Chapters 21–24Appendix: David's song, the list of mighty men, and the census

Historical background

David's reign is generally dated to about 1010–970 BC. He captured the Jebusite city of Jerusalem and made it his capital, and he extended the kingdom by subduing neighboring peoples. The Davidic covenant of chapter 7 became an important foundation for later messianic expectation.

2 Samuel Read →

1 KingsUnknown (Jewish tradition attributes it to Jeremiah) · Mid-6th century BC (completed with 2 Kings during the Babylonian exile)The book records the last days of David, the accession and reign of Solomon, and the building of the temple in Jerusalem. It then describes the division of the kingdom into Israel in the north and Judah in the south after Solomon's death, the early history of the two kingdoms, and the ministry of Elijah in the days of Ahab.Details

Classification: Historical Books · Former Prophets (Nevi'im)
Author: Unknown (Jewish tradition attributes it to Jeremiah)
Date: Mid-6th century BC (completed with 2 Kings during the Babylonian exile)
Length: 22 chapters

Theme Kings judged by their faithfulness to the covenant

Outline

Chapters 1–2The last days of David and the accession of Solomon
Chapters 3–11Solomon's wisdom and reign, the building and dedication of the temple, and his later apostasy
Chapters 12–16The division of the kingdom and the early kings of both realms
Chapters 17–22The ministry of Elijah and the reign of Ahab

Historical background

Solomon's reign is dated to about 970–931 BC, and the division of the kingdom to about 931 BC. Jeroboam of the northern kingdom set up golden calves at Bethel and Dan, separating his people from worship at the Jerusalem temple. Kings evaluates each ruler by faithfulness to the Torah, especially the purity of worship. In the Hebrew Bible, 1 and 2 Kings originally formed a single book.

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2 KingsUnknown (Jewish tradition attributes it to Jeremiah) · After 561 BC (records the release of Jehoiachin, 2 Kings 25:27)Beginning with the ministry of Elisha, the book records the history of the two kingdoms until the fall of Israel to Assyria (722 BC) and the fall of Judah to Babylon (586 BC). It also covers the reforms of Hezekiah and Josiah.Details

Classification: Historical Books · Former Prophets (Nevi'im)
Author: Unknown (Jewish tradition attributes it to Jeremiah)
Date: After 561 BC (records the release of Jehoiachin, 2 Kings 25:27)
Length: 25 chapters

Theme The fall of both kingdoms as the consequence of covenant unfaithfulness

Outline

Chapters 1–8The ascension of Elijah and the ministry of Elisha
Chapters 9–17From the revolution of Jehu to the fall of the northern kingdom
Chapters 18–21The reform of Hezekiah and the apostasy of Manasseh
Chapters 22–25The reform of Josiah, the fall of Judah, and the Babylonian exile

Historical background

The northern kingdom fell around 722 BC when Samaria was taken by Assyria and its population was deported. In 586 BC Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon destroyed Jerusalem and the temple. The book closes with the release of Jehoiachin in Babylon (about 561 BC).

2 Kings Read →

1 ChroniclesEzra (traditional view; some scholars posit an anonymous Chronicler) · Late 5th to 4th century BC (after the return from exile)Opening with genealogies from Adam to the post-exilic period, the book records the reign of David. It focuses on David's transfer of the ark to Jerusalem, his organization of the Levitical service, and his preparations for the temple that Solomon would build.Details

Classification: Historical Books · Writings (Ketuvim)
Author: Ezra (traditional view; some scholars posit an anonymous Chronicler)
Date: Late 5th to 4th century BC (after the return from exile)
Place of writing: Jerusalem
Length: 29 chapters

Theme Israel's identity through the Davidic dynasty and temple worship

Outline

Chapters 1–9Genealogies from Adam to the post-exilic period
Chapters 10–12The death of Saul and the accession of David
Chapters 13–16The transfer of the ark to Jerusalem
Chapters 17–21The Davidic covenant, David's wars, and the census
Chapters 22–29Preparations for the temple, the organization of priests and Levites, and the accession of Solomon

Historical background

Chronicles was written for the community that had returned from the Babylonian exile. While drawing on Samuel and Kings, it emphasizes the Davidic dynasty, temple worship, and the duties of priests and Levites, enabling the returned community to affirm its roots and identity. In the Hebrew Bible, 1 and 2 Chronicles form a single book, placed last in the canon.

1 Chronicles Read →

2 ChroniclesEzra (traditional view; some scholars posit an anonymous Chronicler) · Late 5th to 4th century BC (after the return from exile)The book records the reign of Solomon and the building and dedication of the temple, and then traces the history of the kings of Judah from the division of the kingdom to the Babylonian exile. It gives considerable attention to the reforms of Hezekiah and Josiah and closes with the decree of Cyrus permitting the return.Details

Classification: Historical Books · Writings (Ketuvim)
Author: Ezra (traditional view; some scholars posit an anonymous Chronicler)
Date: Late 5th to 4th century BC (after the return from exile)
Place of writing: Jerusalem
Length: 36 chapters

Theme Restoration granted to those who seek YHWH

Outline

Chapters 1–9The reign of Solomon and the building and dedication of the temple
Chapters 10–28The division of the kingdom and the history of the kings of Judah
Chapters 29–32The reform of Hezekiah and the restoration of Passover
Chapters 33–36From Manasseh to Josiah, the fall of Judah, and the decree of Cyrus

Historical background

2 Chronicles largely omits the history of the northern kingdom and concentrates on Judah under the Davidic dynasty. It evaluates each reign by whether the king sought YHWH and maintained temple worship. The final verses record the decree of the Persian king Cyrus in 538 BC, which connects with the opening of Ezra.

2 Chronicles Read →

EzraEzra (traditional view) · Mid-5th century BC (about 440 BC)The book records the first return under Zerubbabel following the decree of Cyrus and the rebuilding of the temple, and then, some sixty years later, the second return led by Ezra, a scribe and priest. Ezra teaches the Torah and reforms the community by addressing intermarriage with foreign peoples.Details

Classification: Historical Books · Writings (Ketuvim)
Author: Ezra (traditional view)
Date: Mid-5th century BC (about 440 BC)
Place of writing: Jerusalem
Length: 10 chapters

Theme The rebuilding of the temple and the restoration of a community centered on the Torah

Outline

Chapters 1–2The decree of Cyrus and the list of the first returnees
Chapters 3–6The rebuilding of the altar and the temple; opposition and completion
Chapters 7–8The return of Ezra
Chapters 9–10The problem of intermarriage and the reform of the community

Historical background

After Persia conquered Babylon in 539 BC, Cyrus permitted exiled peoples to return to their homelands. Work on the temple was halted by opposition, then resumed at the urging of Haggai and Zechariah and completed in 516/515 BC under Darius. Ezra's return is dated to the seventh year of Artaxerxes I (458 BC). Ezra 4:8–6:18 and 7:12–26 are written in Aramaic, and in the Hebrew Bible Ezra and Nehemiah originally formed a single book.

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NehemiahNehemiah (traditional view; cf. 1:1. Some attribute the final editing to Ezra) · Late 5th century BC (about 430 BC)The book records how Nehemiah, cupbearer to the Persian king, was sent as governor of Judah and rebuilt the walls of Jerusalem. It then describes Ezra's public reading of the Torah and the renewal of the covenant, the repopulation of the city, and the reforms of Nehemiah's second term.Details

Classification: Historical Books · Writings (Ketuvim)
Author: Nehemiah (traditional view; cf. 1:1. Some attribute the final editing to Ezra)
Date: Late 5th century BC (about 430 BC)
Place of writing: Jerusalem
Length: 13 chapters

Theme The rebuilding of the walls and the community's renewal of the covenant according to the Torah

Outline

Chapters 1–2Nehemiah's prayer and his commission to Jerusalem
Chapters 3–7The rebuilding of the wall, opposition from adversaries, and the list of returnees
Chapters 8–10The reading of the Torah, the Feast of Tabernacles, repentance, and covenant renewal
Chapters 11–13The repopulation of Jerusalem, the dedication of the wall, and Nehemiah's reforms

Historical background

Nehemiah arrived in Jerusalem in the twentieth year of Artaxerxes I (445/444 BC) and completed the rebuilding of the wall in fifty-two days. Sanballat of Samaria and Tobiah the Ammonite opposed the work. Chapter 13 records how, after a return to Persia, Nehemiah corrected abuses concerning the Sabbath, the administration of the temple, and intermarriage.

Nehemiah Read →

EstherUnknown (Jewish tradition attributes it to the Men of the Great Assembly or to Mordecai) · Late 5th to 4th century BC (some scholars date it later)The book records how, in the reign of the Persian king Ahasuerus, the Jewish woman Esther became queen and, together with her cousin Mordecai, thwarted Haman's plot to destroy the Jewish people. It explains the origin of Purim, which commemorates this deliverance.Details

Classification: Historical Books · Writings (Ketuvim), Five Scrolls (Megillot)
Author: Unknown (Jewish tradition attributes it to the Men of the Great Assembly or to Mordecai)
Date: Late 5th to 4th century BC (some scholars date it later)
Place of writing: Persia
Length: 10 chapters

Theme The preservation of the Jewish people under a hidden providence

Outline

Chapters 1–2The deposition of Vashti and Esther's elevation as queen
Chapters 3–5Haman's plot and Esther's resolve
Chapters 6–8The honoring of Mordecai, the fall of Haman, and the new decree
Chapters 9–10The deliverance of the Jews and the institution of Purim

Historical background

Ahasuerus is generally identified with the Persian king Xerxes I (reigned 486–465 BC). The events take place in Susa, a royal capital of Persia, and reflect the situation of Jews who had not returned but lived dispersed throughout the empire. The divine name does not appear directly in the Hebrew text, and the book is read in the synagogue at Purim.

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Poetry and Wisdom

JobUnknown (Jewish tradition attributes it to Moses) · Unknown — set in the patriarchal period (scholars date its composition variously from the time of Solomon to the post-exilic period)Job, a righteous man who fears God, loses his possessions, his children, and his health, and then engages in an extended debate with three friends concerning the cause of his suffering. After the speeches of Elihu, YHWH speaks out of the whirlwind; Job repents and is restored.Details

Classification: Writings (Ketuvim) · Wisdom Literature
Author: Unknown (Jewish tradition attributes it to Moses)
Date: Unknown — set in the patriarchal period (scholars date its composition variously from the time of Solomon to the post-exilic period)
Place of writing: The land of Uz (setting)
Length: 42 chapters

Theme The suffering of the righteous and the sovereign wisdom of God

Outline

Chapters 1–2Prologue: the heavenly council and the testing of Job
Chapters 3–31The dialogue of Job with his three friends (Eliphaz, Bildad, Zophar)
Chapters 32–37The speeches of Elihu
Chapters 38–41The speeches of YHWH from the whirlwind
Chapter 42Job's response and restoration

Historical background

The book contains almost no reference to the history or legal institutions of Israel, and details such as Job offering sacrifices as head of his household reflect the patriarchal era. Uz is generally located in Edom or northern Arabia. The prologue and epilogue are prose, while the main body is Hebrew poetry; the work is frequently studied alongside the wisdom literature of the ancient Near East.

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PsalmsDavid (73 psalms by superscription), Asaph, the sons of Korah, Solomon, Moses, Heman, Ethan, and others (some anonymous) · Composed and compiled over roughly a thousand years, from c. the 15th century BC (Moses) to the post-exilic periodA collection of 150 poems used in the worship and prayer of Israel; its Hebrew title is Tehillim ("praises"). It comprises a range of forms, including hymns, laments, thanksgivings, wisdom psalms, and royal psalms, arranged in five books.Details

Classification: Writings (Ketuvim) · Poetry
Author: David (73 psalms by superscription), Asaph, the sons of Korah, Solomon, Moses, Heman, Ethan, and others (some anonymous)
Date: Composed and compiled over roughly a thousand years, from c. the 15th century BC (Moses) to the post-exilic period
Length: 150 chapters

Theme Praise and prayer offered to YHWH, and a life of meditation on the Torah

Outline

Chapters 1–41Book I: chiefly psalms of David
Chapters 42–72Book II: psalms of the sons of Korah and of David
Chapters 73–89Book III: psalms of Asaph and the sons of Korah
Chapters 90–106Book IV: psalms of the kingship of YHWH, opening with the prayer of Moses
Chapters 107–150Book V: thanksgiving, the Songs of Ascents, and the Hallel

Historical background

Each book closes with a doxology (41:13, 72:19, 89:52, 106:48), and the fivefold arrangement has long been understood as corresponding to the five books of the Torah. Many psalms originated in the worship of the Davidic and First Temple periods, and the collection appears to have reached its present form in the Second Temple community after the Babylonian exile. The Songs of Ascents (Psalms 120–134) are associated with pilgrimage to the appointed feasts.

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ProverbsSolomon (principal author), the wise, Agur (chapter 30), King Lemuel (chapter 31); a portion compiled by the men of Hezekiah (25:1) · Written in the 10th century BC (the time of Solomon), with portions compiled in the late 8th to early 7th century BC under HezekiahThe book declares that the fear of YHWH is the beginning of knowledge and wisdom, and it collects maxims and instruction applying that wisdom to everyday life, including family, speech, labor, wealth, and justice. An extended opening discourse is followed by collections of shorter proverbs.Details

Classification: Writings (Ketuvim) · Wisdom Literature
Author: Solomon (principal author), the wise, Agur (chapter 30), King Lemuel (chapter 31); a portion compiled by the men of Hezekiah (25:1)
Date: Written in the 10th century BC (the time of Solomon), with portions compiled in the late 8th to early 7th century BC under Hezekiah
Place of writing: Jerusalem
Length: 31 chapters

Theme The fear of YHWH is the beginning of wisdom (Proverbs 1:7)

Outline

Chapters 1–9Discourses of wisdom addressed to a son
10:1–22:16The proverbs of Solomon
22:17–24:34The words of the wise
Chapters 25–29Proverbs of Solomon compiled by the men of Hezekiah
Chapter 30The words of Agur
Chapter 31The words of King Lemuel and the woman of valor

Historical background

1 Kings 4:32 records that Solomon spoke three thousand proverbs. The book shares formal features with the instructional literature of Egypt and Mesopotamia; Proverbs 22:17–24:22 in particular has been compared with the Egyptian Instruction of Amenemope. Proverbs is distinguished, however, by placing all wisdom within the framework of the fear of YHWH and covenant faith.

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EcclesiastesThe Preacher (Qohelet), traditionally Solomon (some scholars assign it to a post-exilic author) · 10th century BC (traditional view; some scholars date it to the 5th–3rd century BC)The Preacher, presented as a son of David and king in Jerusalem, examines the meaning of wisdom, pleasure, labor, and wealth under the sun and concludes that all is vanity. The book closes with the conclusion that the whole duty of man is to fear God and keep His commandments.Details

Classification: Writings (Ketuvim) · Wisdom Literature · Megillot (Five Scrolls)
Author: The Preacher (Qohelet), traditionally Solomon (some scholars assign it to a post-exilic author)
Date: 10th century BC (traditional view; some scholars date it to the 5th–3rd century BC)
Place of writing: Jerusalem
Length: 12 chapters

Theme The vanity of life under the sun and the fear of God (Ecclesiastes 12:13)

Outline

Chapters 1–2Prologue and the Preacher's inquiry: wisdom, pleasure, and labor
Chapters 3–5Appointed times and the sovereignty of God; worship and vows
Chapters 6–8The value and limits of wisdom
9:1–12:8Counsel to enjoy the life given, and reflections on old age and death
12:9–14Conclusion: fear God and keep His commandments

Historical background

The Hebrew name Qohelet denotes one who assembles or addresses a congregation. In Jewish tradition Ecclesiastes is one of the five Megillot and is read at the Feast of Tabernacles (Sukkot). Because certain vocabulary and stylistic features resemble later Hebrew, scholars differ on the date of composition.

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Song of SongsSolomon (1:1; some scholars regard it as a later compilation) · 10th century BC (traditional view)A love poem in dialogue form celebrating the love between a man and the Shulammite woman. Longing and mutual praise, separation and reunion, and the joy of marriage are expressed in poetic language.Details

Classification: Writings (Ketuvim) · Poetry · Megillot (Five Scrolls)
Author: Solomon (1:1; some scholars regard it as a later compilation)
Date: 10th century BC (traditional view)
Place of writing: Jerusalem
Length: 8 chapters

Theme Love as strong as death, and covenant faithfulness

Outline

1:1–2:7Mutual love and praise
2:8–3:5The lovers seek one another
3:6–5:1The wedding procession and the joy of union
5:2–6:3Separation, longing, and finding again
6:4–8:14Love affirmed and matured

Historical background

The Hebrew title, Shir HaShirim ("Song of Songs"), denotes the most excellent of songs. Jewish tradition has read the book as an allegory of the relationship between YHWH and Israel, and it is one of the Megillot read at Passover. Later interpretive traditions have also read it in terms of the relationship between the Messiah and his people.

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Major Prophets

IsaiahIsaiah son of Amoz (some scholars assign chapters 40–66 to later authors) · c. 740–680 BC (from the year King Uzziah died to beyond the reign of Hezekiah)Isaiah indicts the sin of Judah and Jerusalem and proclaims the judgment of YHWH upon the nations, while foretelling the restoration of the remnant, the Messianic king of the line of David, the suffering Servant of YHWH, and the new heavens and new earth. The book moves from judgment to comfort and redemption.Details

Classification: Prophets (Nevi'im) · Major Prophets
Author: Isaiah son of Amoz (some scholars assign chapters 40–66 to later authors)
Date: c. 740–680 BC (from the year King Uzziah died to beyond the reign of Hezekiah)
Place of writing: Jerusalem
Length: 66 chapters

Theme The judgment and salvation of YHWH, the Holy One of Israel

Outline

Chapters 1–12Judgment on Judah and Jerusalem, and the Immanuel prophecy
Chapters 13–27Oracles against the nations and the judgment of the whole earth
Chapters 28–35Oracles of woe and the restoration of Zion
Chapters 36–39Hezekiah and the Assyrian invasion; the announcement concerning Babylon
Chapters 40–55Comfort for the exiles and the Servant of YHWH
Chapters 56–66Restored Zion and the new heavens and new earth

Historical background

Isaiah ministered in Jerusalem during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. In this period Assyria destroyed the northern kingdom of Israel (722 BC), and Sennacherib invaded Judah (701 BC). The Great Isaiah Scroll (1QIsa^a), discovered at Qumran in 1947 and dated to about the 2nd century BC, preserves all sixty-six chapters.

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JeremiahJeremiah son of Hilkiah, of a priestly family of Anathoth; recorded by the scribe Baruch (chapter 36) · c. 627–580 BC (from the thirteenth year of Josiah to after the fall of Jerusalem)Jeremiah indicts Judah for idolatry and violation of the covenant and proclaims judgment through Babylon, enduring persecution and imprisonment as a result. At the same time he promises return from exile and a new covenant (31:31–34), setting forth hope beyond judgment.Details

Classification: Prophets (Nevi'im) · Major Prophets
Author: Jeremiah son of Hilkiah, of a priestly family of Anathoth; recorded by the scribe Baruch (chapter 36)
Date: c. 627–580 BC (from the thirteenth year of Josiah to after the fall of Jerusalem)
Place of writing: Jerusalem; Egypt
Length: 52 chapters

Theme Judgment for covenant violation and the promise of a new covenant

Outline

Chapter 1The call of Jeremiah
Chapters 2–25Warnings and judgment against Judah and Jerusalem
Chapters 26–33Conflict with false prophets, and the Book of Consolation (chapters 30–33)
Chapters 34–45The fall of Jerusalem and its aftermath
Chapters 46–51Oracles against the nations
Chapter 52Appendix: the account of the fall of Jerusalem

Historical background

Jeremiah ministered during the reigns of Josiah, Jehoahaz, Jehoiakim, Jehoiachin, and Zedekiah. In this period the Neo-Babylonian Empire supplanted Assyria, and Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem in 597 and 586 BC, destroying the Temple. The Septuagint text of Jeremiah is shorter than the Masoretic Text and places the oracles against the nations differently; manuscripts of both traditions were found at Qumran.

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LamentationsJeremiah (traditional view; the text does not name its author) · Shortly after the fall of Jerusalem in 586 BCFive laments over the devastation of Jerusalem and the Temple by Babylon. While acknowledging the judgment of YHWH upon the people's sin, the book places its hope in His steadfast love and faithfulness and pleads for restoration.Details

Classification: Writings (Ketuvim) · Megillot (Five Scrolls) · Lament
Author: Jeremiah (traditional view; the text does not name its author)
Date: Shortly after the fall of Jerusalem in 586 BC
Place of writing: Jerusalem; Judah
Length: 5 chapters

Theme Mourning over the fall of Jerusalem and hope in the faithfulness of YHWH

Outline

Chapter 1The grief of desolate Jerusalem
Chapter 2The wrath of YHWH upon Zion
Chapter 3Hope in the midst of affliction
Chapter 4Zion's former glory and present ruin
Chapter 5A prayer for restoration

Historical background

The Septuagint and Talmudic tradition attribute the book to Jeremiah, and 2 Chronicles 35:25 records that Jeremiah composed laments. Chapters 1–4 are alphabetic acrostics following the twenty-two letters of the Hebrew alphabet. In Jewish tradition the book is read on the Ninth of Av (Tisha B'Av), which commemorates the destruction of the Temple.

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EzekielEzekiel the priest, son of Buzi · c. 593–571 BCEzekiel, a priest in exile, sees a vision of the glory of YHWH and is called as a prophet. Having proclaimed the fall of Jerusalem and judgment upon the nations, he foretells the restoration of Israel, symbolized by the revival of the dry bones, a new Temple, and a future in which YHWH dwells among His people.Details

Classification: Prophets (Nevi'im) · Major Prophets
Author: Ezekiel the priest, son of Buzi
Date: c. 593–571 BC
Place of writing: By the river Chebar in Babylon (Tel-abib)
Length: 48 chapters

Theme The glory and presence of YHWH, and the restoration of Israel

Outline

Chapters 1–3The vision of the glory of YHWH and the call of Ezekiel
Chapters 4–24Judgment on Judah and Jerusalem; the glory departs from the Temple
Chapters 25–32Oracles against the nations
Chapters 33–39The restoration of Israel: a new heart, the dry bones, Gog and Magog
Chapters 40–48The new Temple and its worship; the division of the land

Historical background

Ezekiel was among the exiles deported to Babylon with King Jehoiachin in 597 BC. He received his call in the fifth year of Jehoiachin's exile (593 BC), and the latest date recorded in the book is the twenty-seventh year (571 BC; 29:17). Because most of the oracles bear precise dates, the chronology of his ministry can be established with relative clarity.

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DanielDaniel (traditional view; some scholars assign it to a 2nd-century BC author) · 6th century BC (traditional view; some scholars date it to the 2nd century BC under Antiochus IV)The book records the accounts of Daniel and his three companions, who remained faithful in the courts of Babylon and Persia, together with the visions Daniel received. It proclaims that while the empires of the world rise and fall in succession, God will establish an everlasting kingdom and give it to one like a son of man and to the saints of the Most High.Details

Classification: Writings (Ketuvim) · Apocalyptic Prophecy (Major Prophets in the Christian canonical order)
Author: Daniel (traditional view; some scholars assign it to a 2nd-century BC author)
Date: 6th century BC (traditional view; some scholars date it to the 2nd century BC under Antiochus IV)
Place of writing: Babylon; Susa
Length: 12 chapters

Theme The sovereignty of God over the nations and His everlasting kingdom

Outline

Chapter 1Daniel and his companions in the Babylonian court
Chapters 2–4Nebuchadnezzar's dreams, the fiery furnace, and the humbling of the king
Chapters 5–6Belshazzar's feast and Daniel in the lions' den
Chapters 7–8The four beasts and one like a son of man; the vision of the ram and the goat
Chapter 9Daniel's prayer and the seventy weeks
Chapters 10–12The vision of the time of the end

Historical background

Daniel was taken to Babylon at Nebuchadnezzar's first incursion in 605 BC and remained active into the reign of Cyrus. Daniel 2:4b–7:28 is written in Aramaic and the remainder in Hebrew. In the Hebrew canon the book belongs to the Writings, while in the Christian canonical order it is placed among the Major Prophets.

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Minor Prophets

HoseaHosea son of Beeri · Mid-to-late 8th century BC (c. 755–715 BC)Through his marriage to the unfaithful Gomer, Hosea portrays Israel's apostasy from YHWH. He indicts the nation for idolatry and injustice and pronounces judgment, yet proclaims that YHWH's covenant love will ultimately turn Israel back and restore it.Details

Classification: Prophets · Minor Prophets (The Twelve)
Author: Hosea son of Beeri
Date: Mid-to-late 8th century BC (c. 755–715 BC)
Place of writing: Northern Kingdom of Israel
Length: 14 chapters

Theme YHWH's steadfast covenant love (hesed) toward an unfaithful people

Outline

Chapters 1–3Hosea's marriage and Israel's unfaithfulness
Chapters 4–7Indictment of Israel's sin
Chapters 8–10The sentence of judgment
Chapters 11–14YHWH's love and the promise of restoration

Historical background

Hosea prophesied during the reigns of the Judean kings from Uzziah to Hezekiah and of Jeroboam II of Israel. After Jeroboam II, the Northern Kingdom suffered repeated usurpations and political turmoil, seeking alliances with both Assyria and Egypt. Baal worship and social injustice in this period form the background of the prophecy, and Samaria fell to Assyria in 722 BC.

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JoelJoel son of Pethuel · Uncertain (traditionally 9th century BC, the reign of Joash; some scholars place it after the exile, 5th–4th century BC)Joel interprets a locust plague that has struck Judah as a sign of the approaching Day of YHWH and calls the people to fasting and repentance. He then proclaims the restoration of the land, the promise that the Spirit will be poured out on all flesh, judgment on the nations, and the restoration of Zion.Details

Classification: Prophets · Minor Prophets (The Twelve)
Author: Joel son of Pethuel
Date: Uncertain (traditionally 9th century BC, the reign of Joash; some scholars place it after the exile, 5th–4th century BC)
Place of writing: Judah (Jerusalem)
Length: 4 chapters

Theme The Day of YHWH: judgment and repentance, the outpouring of the Spirit, and restoration

Outline

Chapter 1The locust plague and the call to lament
Chapter 2Warning of the Day of YHWH, the call to repentance, and the restoration of the land
Chapter 3The outpouring of the Spirit on all flesh
Chapter 4Judgment on the nations and the restoration of Zion

Historical background

The book names no king and gives prominence to temple worship and to elders and priests, which makes dating difficult. The Hebrew Masoretic text comprises four chapters; 2:28–32 and chapter 3 in most English Bibles correspond to chapters 3 and 4 of this text. In Acts 2, Peter explains the events of Shavuot (Pentecost) as the fulfillment of Joel 3:1–5 (English 2:28–32).

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AmosAmos, a shepherd of Tekoa · c. 760 BC (two years before the earthquake)Amos, a shepherd from Tekoa in Judah, was sent to the Northern Kingdom to expose the injustice, oppression, and formal worship concealed beneath its prosperity. After oracles of judgment against the nations and Israel and a series of five visions, the book concludes with the promise that the fallen booth of David will be raised up.Details

Classification: Prophets · Minor Prophets (The Twelve)
Author: Amos, a shepherd of Tekoa
Date: c. 760 BC (two years before the earthquake)
Place of writing: Northern Kingdom of Israel (Bethel)
Length: 9 chapters

Theme The justice and righteousness required of the covenant people, and the judgment of YHWH

Outline

Chapters 1–2Oracles of judgment against the nations, Judah, and Israel
Chapters 3–6Indictments and warnings against Israel
7:1–9:10Five visions and the confrontation with Amaziah, priest of Bethel
9:11–15The restoration of the booth of David

Historical background

Amos prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah of Judah and Jeroboam II of Israel. A temporary decline of Assyria allowed the Northern Kingdom to expand its territory and enjoy economic prosperity, but wealth was concentrated and the poor were oppressed. In Acts 15:16–17, James cites Amos 9:11–12 to explain the inclusion of the Gentiles.

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ObadiahObadiah · Widely dated shortly after the fall of Jerusalem in 586 BC (some scholars place it in the 9th century BC)The shortest book of the Hebrew Scriptures, Obadiah pronounces judgment on Edom. Because of the pride and violence Edom showed when it stood aloof and joined in plundering its brother Jacob on the day of his distress, Edom will perish; on the Day of YHWH, Zion will be restored and the kingdom will belong to YHWH.Details

Classification: Prophets · Minor Prophets (The Twelve)
Author: Obadiah
Date: Widely dated shortly after the fall of Jerusalem in 586 BC (some scholars place it in the 9th century BC)
Length: 1 chapter

Theme Judgment on proud Edom and the restoration of Zion

Outline

Verses 1–9The sentence of Edom's destruction
Verses 10–14Edom's sin: violence against its brother Jacob
Verses 15–21The Day of YHWH and the restoration of Zion

Historical background

Edom, descended from Esau, had a long history of hostility toward Israel, the descendants of Jacob. The content of the book corresponds closely to Edom's rejoicing over and participation in the Babylonian conquest of Jerusalem (cf. Psalm 137:7). Edom was later displaced by the Nabataeans, and its descendants, the Idumeans, disappear from history after the New Testament period.

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JonahJonah son of Amittai (traditional view; some scholars attribute it to a later writer) · 8th century BC, the reign of Jeroboam II (some scholars date its composition after the exile)Sent to Nineveh, the capital of Assyria, Jonah flees toward Tarshish, is swallowed by a great fish, and after his deliverance proclaims judgment on Nineveh. When the city repents, God relents from the disaster, and He teaches the angry prophet about His compassion toward the nations.Details

Classification: Prophets · Minor Prophets (The Twelve)
Author: Jonah son of Amittai (traditional view; some scholars attribute it to a later writer)
Date: 8th century BC, the reign of Jeroboam II (some scholars date its composition after the exile)
Length: 4 chapters

Theme God's sovereignty and compassion extending even to repentant Gentile nations

Outline

Chapter 1Jonah's flight and the storm at sea
Chapter 2Jonah's prayer from the belly of the fish
Chapter 3The repentance of Nineveh
Chapter 4Jonah's anger and God's compassion

Historical background

Jonah is mentioned in 2 Kings 14:25 as the prophet who foretold the restoration of Israel's borders under Jeroboam II. Nineveh was a principal city of the Assyrian Empire, the center of a power that threatened Israel. In Matthew 12:39–41, Yeshua refers to the sign of Jonah and the repentance of the people of Nineveh.

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MicahMicah of Moresheth · Late 8th century BC (c. 735–700 BC)Micah indicts the idolatry of Samaria and Jerusalem, the corruption of rulers, priests, and prophets, and the oppression of the poor, and pronounces judgment. He also foretells that in the last days Torah will go forth from Zion so that the nations learn the ways of YHWH, and that a ruler will come forth from Bethlehem.Details

Classification: Prophets · Minor Prophets (The Twelve)
Author: Micah of Moresheth
Date: Late 8th century BC (c. 735–700 BC)
Place of writing: Judah
Length: 7 chapters

Theme The judgment and restoration of YHWH, who requires justice, steadfast love, and humility

Outline

Chapters 1–3Judgment on Samaria and Jerusalem; indictment of the leaders
Chapters 4–5The restoration of Zion and the ruler from Bethlehem
Chapters 6–7YHWH's lawsuit and the hope of restoration

Historical background

Micah prophesied during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah of Judah and was a contemporary of Isaiah. In this period Assyria expanded, conquering Samaria in 722 BC, and Sennacherib invaded Judah in 701 BC. Jeremiah 26:18 records that Micah's prophecy led to repentance in the days of Hezekiah, and Matthew 2:6 cites Micah 5:1 (English 5:2) concerning the birthplace of the Messiah.

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NahumNahum the Elkoshite · Mid-to-late 7th century BC (after the fall of Thebes in 663 BC and before the fall of Nineveh in 612 BC)Nahum proclaims the destruction of Nineveh, the capital of Assyria. YHWH is slow to anger yet will by no means leave the guilty unpunished, and by judging cruel Assyria He will bring comfort and deliverance to Judah.Details

Classification: Prophets · Minor Prophets (The Twelve)
Author: Nahum the Elkoshite
Date: Mid-to-late 7th century BC (after the fall of Thebes in 663 BC and before the fall of Nineveh in 612 BC)
Place of writing: Judah
Length: 3 chapters

Theme YHWH's righteous judgment on an oppressive empire and the comfort of His people

Outline

Chapter 1YHWH's vengeance and His refuge for His people
Chapter 2The fall of Nineveh
Chapter 3Woe to Nineveh, the city of bloodshed

Historical background

The book refers to the Assyrian conquest of Thebes (No-Amon) in Egypt in 663 BC and was therefore written after that event. Nineveh fell in 612 BC to a coalition of Babylonians and Medes, and the Assyrian Empire collapsed shortly thereafter. Nahum is often read alongside Jonah, which recounts Nineveh's earlier repentance.

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HabakkukHabakkuk · Late 7th century BC (c. 609–598 BC, the reign of Jehoiakim)Habakkuk questions God about the unchecked injustice in Judah and about the use of the more wicked Babylonians as an instrument of judgment. God answers that the righteous will live by his faith (faithfulness) and that the proud will surely be judged, and the prophet responds with a prayer and hymn of trust.Details

Classification: Prophets · Minor Prophets (The Twelve)
Author: Habakkuk
Date: Late 7th century BC (c. 609–598 BC, the reign of Jehoiakim)
Place of writing: Judah
Length: 3 chapters

Theme The faith (faithfulness) of the righteous who trust in God's justice in the face of evil

Outline

Chapter 1Habakkuk's complaints and the answer concerning Babylon
Chapter 2The faith of the righteous and five woes against the proud
Chapter 3Habakkuk's prayer and hymn of trust

Historical background

The book is set in the period when Babylon (Chaldea) defeated Egypt at the battle of Carchemish in 605 BC and gained dominance over the Near East. Babylon subsequently attacked Jerusalem in 597 and 586 BC. Habakkuk 2:4 is cited in Romans 1:17, Galatians 3:11, and Hebrews 10:38.

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ZephaniahZephaniah son of Cushi, a fourth-generation descendant of Hezekiah · Late 7th century BC (the reign of Josiah, c. 640–622 BC)Zephaniah proclaims the judgment of the Day of YHWH upon Judah and the nations and urges the humble to seek YHWH. After the judgment, the nations will serve YHWH with one accord and a pure speech, the humble remnant will be restored, and YHWH will rejoice in their midst.Details

Classification: Prophets · Minor Prophets (The Twelve)
Author: Zephaniah son of Cushi, a fourth-generation descendant of Hezekiah
Date: Late 7th century BC (the reign of Josiah, c. 640–622 BC)
Place of writing: Judah (Jerusalem)
Length: 3 chapters

Theme The judgment of the Day of YHWH and the restoration of a purified remnant

Outline

1:1–2:3The Day of YHWH upon Judah and the call to repentance
2:4–15Judgment on the nations
3:1–8Indictment of Jerusalem
3:9–20Pure speech for the nations and the restoration of the remnant

Historical background

Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of Josiah of Judah. Because the book describes the idolatry that had spread under Manasseh and Amon as still present, it is widely dated before Josiah's reform of 622 BC. In this period Assyria was in decline and Babylon was rising. Zephaniah began his ministry at about the same time as Jeremiah.

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HaggaiHaggai · 520 BC (the second year of King Darius)When the returned exiles attended to their own houses and postponed rebuilding the temple, Haggai urged them through four messages to resume the work. Governor Zerubbabel, the high priest Joshua, and the people responded and resumed construction, and YHWH gave promises concerning the latter glory of this house and concerning Zerubbabel.Details

Classification: Prophets · Minor Prophets (The Twelve)
Author: Haggai
Date: 520 BC (the second year of King Darius)
Place of writing: Jerusalem
Length: 2 chapters

Theme The priority of rebuilding the temple, YHWH's presence, and the promise of future glory

Outline

Chapter 1The call to rebuild the temple and the people's response
2:1–9The latter glory of this house
2:10–19The question of purity and the promise of blessing
2:20–23The promise to Zerubbabel

Historical background

The exiles who returned under the decree of Cyrus in 538 BC laid the temple foundation, but opposition from neighboring peoples halted the work for about sixteen years (Ezra 4). Encouraged by the prophecies of Haggai and Zechariah, construction resumed in 520 BC, and the temple was completed in 516/515 BC (Ezra 5–6). Each of the book's messages bears a precise date.

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ZechariahZechariah son of Berechiah, grandson of Iddo (some scholars attribute chapters 9–14 to another writer) · 520–518 BC (chapters 1–8); chapters 9–14 somewhat laterZechariah, who together with Haggai encouraged the rebuilding of the temple, presents eight night visions concerning the restoration of Jerusalem, the cleansing of the people, and the roles of the high priest and the ruler. The two oracles of the second half foretell the coming of a humble king, the one who was pierced, the Day of YHWH, and the nations going up to Jerusalem to keep the Feast of Booths.Details

Classification: Prophets · Minor Prophets (The Twelve)
Author: Zechariah son of Berechiah, grandson of Iddo (some scholars attribute chapters 9–14 to another writer)
Date: 520–518 BC (chapters 1–8); chapters 9–14 somewhat later
Place of writing: Jerusalem
Length: 14 chapters

Theme The restoration of Jerusalem, the coming king, and YHWH as king over all the earth

Outline

Chapters 1–6The call to repentance and eight night visions
Chapters 7–8The question of fasting and promises of restoration
Chapters 9–11First oracle: the coming king and the shepherd
Chapters 12–14Second oracle: the Day of YHWH and the restoration of Jerusalem

Historical background

Zechariah began his ministry after the return from exile in the second year of Darius I (520 BC) and, with Haggai, urged the rebuilding of the temple (Ezra 5:1). The book is frequently cited in the New Testament; in particular, 9:9 is cited regarding Yeshua's entry into Jerusalem (Matthew 21:5), and 12:10 regarding the one who was pierced (John 19:37).

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MalachiMalachi (the name means "my messenger"; some scholars regard it as a title) · Mid-5th century BC (c. 460–430 BC)Through a series of disputations between YHWH and the people, Malachi rebukes the priests' defiled offerings, marriage to foreign women and divorce, and the withholding of tithes. The book promises that the messenger of the covenant will come to purify, and that YHWH will send Elijah the prophet before the Day of YHWH, concluding with an exhortation to remember the Torah of Moses.Details

Classification: Prophets · Minor Prophets (The Twelve)
Author: Malachi (the name means "my messenger"; some scholars regard it as a title)
Date: Mid-5th century BC (c. 460–430 BC)
Place of writing: Jerusalem
Length: 3 chapters

Theme The renewal of covenant faithfulness and preparation for the Day of YHWH

Outline

1:1–5YHWH's love for Israel
1:6–2:9Rebuke of the priests
2:10–16Faithlessness in marriage and covenant
2:17–3:5The coming of the messenger of the covenant
3:6–18Tithes and the book of remembrance
3:19–24The Day of YHWH, the Torah of Moses, and the coming of Elijah

Historical background

The book is set after the completion of the Second Temple, under Persian provincial rule; because the issues it addresses overlap considerably with those in Nehemiah, it is dated around the time of Nehemiah. The Hebrew Masoretic text comprises three chapters; chapter 4 in most English Bibles corresponds to 3:19–24 of this text. The New Testament identifies John the Baptist with the messenger and Elijah foretold by Malachi (Matthew 11:10–14).

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Gospels and Acts

MatthewMatthew (traditional view; the apostle Levi, a former tax collector) · c. AD 50s–60s (some scholars date it to the 70s–80s)The Gospel of Matthew presents Yeshua as the Messiah, the son of David and the son of Abraham, and records his birth, teaching, ministry, death, and resurrection. It is structured around five major discourses and repeatedly shows that the prophecies of the Hebrew Scriptures are fulfilled in Yeshua.Details

Classification: Gospels
Author: Matthew (traditional view; the apostle Levi, a former tax collector)
Date: c. AD 50s–60s (some scholars date it to the 70s–80s)
Length: 28 chapters

Theme Yeshua, the Messiah of Israel and King of the kingdom of heaven

Outline

Chapters 1–4Genealogy and birth of the Messiah; preparation for ministry
Chapters 5–7The Sermon on the Mount and the right interpretation of the Torah
Chapters 8–18Ministry in Galilee; miracles and parables of the kingdom
Chapters 19–25The journey to Jerusalem and teaching on the last days
Chapters 26–28Passion, death, resurrection, and the commissioning of the disciples

Historical background

Early church tradition holds that Matthew wrote his Gospel for the Hebrews. The book makes extensive use of genealogy, scriptural citation, and Torah interpretation familiar to Jewish readers. It reflects debates with various groups within Second Temple Judaism and concludes with the commission to make disciples of all nations.

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MarkJohn Mark (traditional view; based on the testimony of Peter) · Late AD 50s–60sThe Gospel of Mark is the shortest of the four Gospels and narrates the ministry of Yeshua in a concise, fast-moving account. It centers on Yeshua, the Son of God, who came as a servant, suffered, died, and rose again.Details

Classification: Gospels
Author: John Mark (traditional view; based on the testimony of Peter)
Date: Late AD 50s–60s
Place of writing: Rome (traditional view)
Length: 16 chapters

Theme The Messiah, the Son of God, who came to serve

Outline

Chapter 1The ministry of John the Immerser and the beginning of Yeshua's ministry
Chapters 2–8Ministry in Galilee and Peter's confession
Chapters 9–10Predictions of suffering and the road to Jerusalem
Chapters 11–13Entry into Jerusalem, teaching in the Temple, and the discourse on the last days
Chapters 14–16Passion, death, and resurrection

Historical background

Papias, writing in the second century, reports that Mark served as Peter's interpreter and recorded his teaching. The book translates Aramaic expressions and explains Jewish customs, suggesting a readership outside the land of Israel. Many scholars regard Mark as the earliest written Gospel.

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LukeLuke (traditional view; a physician and companion of Paul) · AD 60s (some scholars date it to the 70s–80s)The Gospel of Luke is the first volume of a two-part work dedicated to Theophilus, an orderly account of the life of Yeshua based on careful investigation of eyewitness testimony. It gives particular attention to Yeshua's concern for the poor, women, sinners, and Gentiles, and to the work of the Holy Spirit.Details

Classification: Gospels
Author: Luke (traditional view; a physician and companion of Paul)
Date: AD 60s (some scholars date it to the 70s–80s)
Length: 24 chapters

Theme Yeshua, the Savior of Israel and of all nations

Outline

Chapters 1–2The births of John the Immerser and Yeshua; Yeshua's childhood
Chapters 3–4Preparation for ministry and the proclamation in the synagogue at Nazareth
Chapters 5–9Ministry in Galilee
Chapters 10–19The journey to Jerusalem and the parables
Chapters 20–24Teaching in Jerusalem, passion, resurrection, and ascension

Historical background

Luke and Acts are generally regarded as a continuous work by the same author. The author follows the prefatory conventions of Greek historiography and dates events by the reigns of Roman emperors and governors. The narrative begins and ends in the Temple, showing that the hope of Israel is realized in Yeshua.

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JohnThe apostle John, son of Zebedee (traditional view) · c. AD 85–95The Gospel of John bears witness to Yeshua as the Word who was in the beginning and became flesh, and through seven signs and extended discourses shows that he is the Messiah, the Son of God. Its stated purpose is that readers may believe in Yeshua and have life in his name (John 20:31).Details

Classification: Gospels
Author: The apostle John, son of Zebedee (traditional view)
Date: c. AD 85–95
Place of writing: Ephesus (traditional view)
Length: 21 chapters

Theme The Word made flesh; Yeshua the Messiah, who gives life

Outline

Chapter 1Prologue: the Word and the first disciples
Chapters 2–12Signs and discourses: the feasts of Israel and the revelation of the Messiah
Chapters 13–17The Last Supper discourse and prayer
Chapters 18–20Passion, death, and resurrection
Chapter 21Epilogue: the appearance by the Sea of Galilee

Historical background

Early church tradition, including Irenaeus, holds that the apostle John wrote this Gospel in Ephesus late in his life. The book arranges Yeshua's ministry around the feasts of Israel, including Passover, Sukkot, and Hanukkah. It contains much material not found in the Synoptic Gospels and records Yeshua's ministry in Jerusalem in detail.

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ActsLuke (traditional view) · c. AD 62 (some scholars date it to the 70s–80s)Acts is the sequel to the Gospel of Luke. It records how, after the ascension of Yeshua and the coming of the Holy Spirit, the ekklesia (church) that began in Jerusalem spread through Judea and Samaria and on to Rome. The first half centers on Peter, the second on Paul.Details

Classification: History
Author: Luke (traditional view)
Date: c. AD 62 (some scholars date it to the 70s–80s)
Length: 28 chapters

Theme The witness to Yeshua the Messiah, carried to the ends of the earth by the power of the Holy Spirit

Outline

Chapters 1–7The ekklesia in Jerusalem and the coming of the Holy Spirit
Chapters 8–12Expansion to Judea and Samaria; the first reception of Gentiles
Chapters 13–15Paul's first missionary journey and the Jerusalem Council
Chapters 16–21Paul's second and third journeys and his return to Jerusalem
Chapters 22–28Paul's arrest, defense, and voyage to Rome

Historical background

The book closes with Paul under house arrest in Rome, which has led some to date its composition to the early 60s. First-person "we" passages appear in sections where the author accompanied Paul. The Jerusalem Council (chapter 15) is a significant record addressing the reception of Gentile believers into the ekklesia.

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Letters of Paul

RomansThe apostle Paul · c. AD 56–57Romans is a letter from Paul to believers in Rome, a community he had not yet visited, and is his most systematic exposition of the gospel he proclaimed. It addresses the justification of Jews and Gentiles alike by faith, new life in the Holy Spirit, the faithfulness of God to Israel, and the life of the community.Details

Classification: Pauline Epistles
Author: The apostle Paul
Date: c. AD 56–57
Place of writing: Corinth
Length: 16 chapters

Theme The righteousness of God revealed to Jew and Gentile alike

Outline

Chapters 1–3The sin of all humanity and the righteousness of God revealed through faith
Chapters 4–5The faith of Abraham and peace through the Messiah
Chapters 6–8Freedom from sin and life according to the Spirit
Chapters 9–11The faithfulness of God toward Israel
Chapters 12–16Community life, the strong and the weak, and greetings

Historical background

Paul wrote this letter from Corinth near the end of his third missionary journey, before delivering the collection to Jerusalem. The Roman community comprised both Jewish and Gentile believers; the expulsion of Jews under Emperor Claudius (c. AD 49) and their later return are often cited as background. Paul states his intention to visit Rome on his way to Spain.

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1 CorinthiansThe apostle Paul · c. AD 54–55First Corinthians is Paul's response to divisions and moral problems in the ekklesia he founded at Corinth, and to questions the community had raised. It addresses factions, sexual immorality, lawsuits, marriage, food offered to idols, order in worship, spiritual gifts, and the resurrection, presenting love as the proper way of all gifts.Details

Classification: Pauline Epistles
Author: The apostle Paul
Date: c. AD 54–55
Place of writing: Ephesus
Length: 16 chapters

Theme A community united in the Messiah and living in holiness

Outline

Chapters 1–4Divisions and the wisdom of the cross
Chapters 5–6Instruction on sexual immorality and lawsuits
Chapters 7–10Marriage, food offered to idols, freedom and restraint
Chapters 11–14Order in worship, the Lord's Supper, spiritual gifts, and love
Chapters 15–16The resurrection of the dead and final instructions

Historical background

Corinth was the capital of the province of Achaia and a commercial city with two harbors. Paul remained there about eighteen months on his second missionary journey and established the community (Acts 18). This letter was written during his stay in Ephesus, after he received reports and a letter from Corinth.

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2 CorinthiansThe apostle Paul (with Timothy) · c. AD 55–56Second Corinthians, written against the background of conflict and reconciliation between Paul and the Corinthian ekklesia, defends Paul's apostleship and explains the ministry of the new covenant. It encourages the collection for the saints in Jerusalem and emphasizes the power of God revealed in weakness.Details

Classification: Pauline Epistles
Author: The apostle Paul (with Timothy)
Date: c. AD 55–56
Place of writing: Macedonia
Length: 13 chapters

Theme Power made perfect in weakness and the ministry of the new covenant

Outline

Chapters 1–2Comfort in affliction and the change of travel plans
Chapters 3–5The ministry of the new covenant and of reconciliation
Chapters 6–7Apostolic hardship and the joy of reconciliation
Chapters 8–9The collection for the saints in Jerusalem
Chapters 10–13Defense of apostleship and warning against false apostles

Historical background

After First Corinthians, Paul appears to have made a painful visit to Corinth and sent a tearful letter (2 Corinthians 2:1–4). He wrote this letter from Macedonia after Titus reported that the Corinthians had turned back. Because of the change of tone in chapters 10–13, some scholars hold that several letters have been combined.

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GalatiansThe apostle Paul · c. AD 48–49 or the mid-50sGalatians defends the gospel that Gentiles are justified by faith in Yeshua the Messiah, against the claim that Gentile believers must be circumcised as proselytes in order to belong to the covenant people. Paul sets out the source of his apostleship and explains the promise to Abraham and life according to the Spirit.Details

Classification: Pauline Epistles
Author: The apostle Paul
Date: c. AD 48–49 or the mid-50s
Length: 6 chapters

Theme Gentiles made children of Abraham through faith in the Messiah

Outline

Chapters 1–2Paul's apostleship and his relation to the apostles in Jerusalem
Chapters 3–4The promise to Abraham, faith, and inheritance
Chapters 5–6Freedom in the Messiah and life according to the Spirit

Historical background

Views on the date depend on whether the recipients were in southern Galatia, visited on Paul's first missionary journey, or in northern Galatia. On the southern view, the letter may be the earliest of Paul's letters, written shortly before the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15). It reflects a central first-century debate in the ekklesia concerning the status of Gentile believers.

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EphesiansThe apostle Paul (some scholars attribute it to a follower of Paul) · c. AD 60–62Ephesians sets forth God's eternal purpose accomplished in the Messiah and the unity of the ekklesia, in which Jews and Gentiles form one body. The first half addresses the grace and calling believers have received; the second, a life worthy of that calling and spiritual warfare.Details

Classification: Pauline Epistles · Prison Epistles
Author: The apostle Paul (some scholars attribute it to a follower of Paul)
Date: c. AD 60–62
Place of writing: Rome (in prison)
Length: 6 chapters

Theme Jew and Gentile made one in the Messiah

Outline

Chapter 1Spiritual blessings in the Messiah and a prayer
Chapters 2–3Salvation by grace and the one body of Jew and Gentile
Chapters 4–5A life worthy of the calling and order in the household
Chapter 6Relations in household and work; the full armor of God

Historical background

Paul ministered in Ephesus for about three years during his third missionary journey (Acts 19). Some early manuscripts lack the words "in Ephesus" in the address, which has led to the view that the letter circulated among several communities. It overlaps considerably with Colossians and appears to have been delivered by Tychicus.

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PhilippiansThe apostle Paul (with Timothy) · c. AD 60–62Philippians is a letter Paul wrote from prison, thanking the Philippian ekklesia for its support. It encourages joy in the midst of suffering, a mind that imitates the humility of Yeshua the Messiah, and unity in the gospel.Details

Classification: Pauline Epistles · Prison Epistles
Author: The apostle Paul (with Timothy)
Date: c. AD 60–62
Place of writing: Rome (in prison; some scholars suggest Ephesus)
Length: 4 chapters

Theme Joy and humble unity in the Messiah

Outline

Chapter 1Thanksgiving, prayer, and the advance of the gospel during imprisonment
Chapter 2Unity modeled on the humility of the Messiah; Timothy and Epaphroditus
Chapter 3No confidence in the flesh; the knowledge of the Messiah
Chapter 4Exhortations to harmony and peace; thanks for support

Historical background

Philippi was a Roman colony and the site of the first community Paul founded in Europe, during his second missionary journey (Acts 16). The Philippian believers supported Paul's work financially on several occasions. Epaphroditus delivered their gift and carried this letter back to them.

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ColossiansThe apostle Paul (with Timothy; some scholars attribute it to a follower of Paul) · c. AD 60–62Colossians is a letter to the ekklesia at Colossae, which Paul had not visited, declaring the supremacy of the Messiah, who is before all things and through whom all things are reconciled. It warns against human philosophy and tradition and exhorts believers to the new life of those raised with the Messiah.Details

Classification: Pauline Epistles · Prison Epistles
Author: The apostle Paul (with Timothy; some scholars attribute it to a follower of Paul)
Date: c. AD 60–62
Place of writing: Rome (in prison)
Length: 4 chapters

Theme Fullness in the Messiah, who is preeminent over all things

Outline

Chapter 1Thanksgiving, prayer, and the supremacy of the Messiah
Chapter 2Warning against empty philosophy and human teaching
Chapter 3The life of the new self seeking things above; order in the household
Chapter 4Exhortation to prayer and greetings from co-workers

Historical background

Colossae was a city in the Lycus Valley in Phrygia, Asia Minor, near Laodicea and Hierapolis. The community there appears to have been founded by Epaphras, a co-worker of Paul. Philemon was sent at the same time, and Tychicus and Onesimus delivered the letters.

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1 ThessaloniansThe apostle Paul (with Silvanus and Timothy) · c. AD 50–51First Thessalonians encourages the ekklesia at Thessalonica, which had remained faithful under persecution. Paul recalls his relationship with them, exhorts them to holy living, and teaches concerning believers who have died and the return of the Lord.Details

Classification: Pauline Epistles
Author: The apostle Paul (with Silvanus and Timothy)
Date: c. AD 50–51
Place of writing: Corinth
Length: 5 chapters

Theme Living in holiness while awaiting the return of the Lord

Outline

Chapter 1Thanksgiving for the faith of the Thessalonian believers
Chapters 2–3Paul's recollection of his ministry and Timothy's report
Chapter 4Exhortation to holy living and the resurrection of those who have died
Chapter 5Readiness for the day of the Lord and final exhortations

Historical background

Thessalonica was the capital of Macedonia and a port city on the Via Egnatia. Paul founded the community there on his second missionary journey but was forced to leave abruptly because of opposition (Acts 17). This letter is regarded as one of the earliest extant letters of Paul.

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2 ThessaloniansThe apostle Paul (with Silvanus and Timothy; some scholars attribute it to a follower of Paul) · c. AD 51–52Second Thessalonians is addressed to the ekklesia at Thessalonica, which had been unsettled by the false teaching that the day of the Lord had already come. Paul explains the events that must precede the day of the Lord and exhorts the believers to perseverance under persecution and to diligent living.Details

Classification: Pauline Epistles
Author: The apostle Paul (with Silvanus and Timothy; some scholars attribute it to a follower of Paul)
Date: c. AD 51–52
Place of writing: Corinth
Length: 3 chapters

Theme A right understanding of the day of the Lord, and perseverance

Outline

Chapter 1Perseverance under persecution and the righteous judgment of God
Chapter 2Teaching on the day of the Lord and the man of sin
Chapter 3Request for prayer and warning against idleness

Historical background

The letter appears to have been written not long after First Thessalonians, in similar circumstances. It warns against letters falsely bearing Paul's name and refers to his own signature (2 Thessalonians 2:2; 3:17). It addresses those who had abandoned ordinary work because of a misunderstanding concerning the day of the Lord.

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1 TimothyThe apostle Paul (traditional view; some scholars regard it as a later work written in Paul's name) · c. AD 62–64 (after the first Roman imprisonment)A letter from Paul to his co-worker Timothy, whom he had left in Ephesus. It warns against false teaching and gives instruction on the order of worship in the ekklesia (church), the qualifications of overseers and deacons, the care of widows and elders, and the right attitude toward wealth.Details

Classification: Pauline Epistles · Pastoral Epistles
Author: The apostle Paul (traditional view; some scholars regard it as a later work written in Paul's name)
Date: c. AD 62–64 (after the first Roman imprisonment)
Place of writing: Macedonia
Length: 6 chapters

Theme Right order and sound teaching in the ekklesia, the household of God

Outline

Chapter 1Warning against false teachers; Paul's commission
Chapter 2Prayer and order in corporate worship
Chapter 3Qualifications of overseers and deacons
Chapter 4Warning of apostasy; Timothy's ministry
Chapters 5–6Instructions concerning widows, elders, and servants; counsel on wealth

Historical background

The letter is generally placed after the events of Acts, when Paul had been released and resumed his ministry. Ephesus was the chief city of the province of Asia and a centre of the worship of Artemis; within the ekklesia, teaching devoted to genealogies and myths had arisen. With 2 Timothy and Titus it is classified among the Pastoral Epistles.

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2 TimothyThe apostle Paul (traditional view; some scholars regard it as a later work) · c. AD 64–67 (during the second Roman imprisonment, shortly before his martyrdom)Paul's final letter, written to Timothy from prison in Rome as he faced death. It urges Timothy to guard the gospel and preach the word despite suffering, warns of apostasy in the last days, and concludes Paul's ministry.Details

Classification: Pauline Epistles · Pastoral Epistles
Author: The apostle Paul (traditional view; some scholars regard it as a later work)
Date: c. AD 64–67 (during the second Roman imprisonment, shortly before his martyrdom)
Place of writing: Rome
Length: 4 chapters

Theme Guarding the gospel and preaching the word amid suffering

Outline

Chapter 1Not ashamed of the gospel; guarding the good deposit
Chapter 2The worker as a good soldier of Messiah Yeshua
Chapter 3Difficult times in the last days; the authority of Scripture
Chapter 4The charge to preach the word; Paul's final reflections

Historical background

The letter is generally placed in the period of intensifying persecution of the followers of the Messiah under Emperor Nero. Paul notes that many co-workers have departed and that only Luke remains with him, and he asks Timothy to come quickly (2 Timothy 4:9–11). According to tradition, Paul was martyred in Rome at about this time.

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TitusThe apostle Paul (traditional view; some scholars regard it as a later work) · c. AD 62–64A letter from Paul to his co-worker Titus, whom he had left on the island of Crete. It directs the appointment of elders in every town and sets out their qualifications, warns against false teachers, and urges instruction in good works befitting grace.Details

Classification: Pauline Epistles · Pastoral Epistles
Author: The apostle Paul (traditional view; some scholars regard it as a later work)
Date: c. AD 62–64
Place of writing: Macedonia, or en route to Nicopolis
Length: 3 chapters

Theme Sound doctrine and the good works that accord with it

Outline

Chapter 1Qualifications of elders; warning against false teachers
Chapter 2Sound teaching for each group in the community
Chapter 3A life devoted to good works; final instructions

Historical background

Crete was a large Mediterranean island whose inhabitants had an unfavourable reputation well known in antiquity (Titus 1:12). Titus was a Gentile co-worker of Paul who had also served in restoring relations with the ekklesia (church) at Corinth. Paul states his intention to spend the winter at Nicopolis (Titus 3:12).

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PhilemonThe apostle Paul · c. AD 60–62 (during imprisonment in Rome)A brief personal letter from Paul to Philemon, a believer in Colossae. Paul earnestly asks him to receive Onesimus, a slave who had run away from him and had come to faith through Paul, as a brother.Details

Classification: Pauline Epistles · Prison Epistles
Author: The apostle Paul
Date: c. AD 60–62 (during imprisonment in Rome)
Place of writing: Rome (some scholars suggest Ephesus)
Length: 1 chapter

Theme Reconciliation between those who have become brothers in the Messiah

Outline

Verses 1–7Greeting and thanksgiving for Philemon's love and faith
Verses 8–21The appeal on behalf of Onesimus
Verses 22–25Plans to visit; greetings

Historical background

Philemon was a believer in Colossae in whose house the ekklesia (church) met. The letter is understood to have been delivered at the same time as Colossians, carried by Tychicus and Onesimus (Colossians 4:7–9). Set against the institution of slavery in the Roman Empire, it presents a brotherhood that transcends social status.

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General Letters

HebrewsUnknown (traditionally attributed by some to Paul, but the text names no author; Barnabas, Apollos, and others have been proposed) · AD 60s (many date it before the destruction of the Temple)A word of exhortation addressed to a Jewish community that had come to believe in the Messiah. It sets forth Yeshua as the Son of God, superior to the angels and to Moses, and as high priest after the order of Melchizedek, and it urges the readers to hold fast their faith amid suffering.Details

Classification: General Epistles
Author: Unknown (traditionally attributed by some to Paul, but the text names no author; Barnabas, Apollos, and others have been proposed)
Date: AD 60s (many date it before the destruction of the Temple)
Length: 13 chapters

Theme Yeshua, the high priest and mediator of a better covenant, and faith that endures to the end

Outline

Chapters 1–2The Son superior to the angels
Chapters 3–4The one greater than Moses; the rest of God
Chapters 5–7High priest after the order of Melchizedek
Chapters 8–10The new covenant and the once-for-all offering
Chapters 11–13The witnesses of faith; exhortations to endurance and practice

Historical background

Because the text describes the tabernacle service in the present tense and does not mention the destruction of the Temple, many scholars date it before AD 70. The recipients were a community that had endured persecution and loss and was in danger of drawing back from the faith (Hebrews 10:32–39). The greeting from those from Italy (Hebrews 13:24) has suggested a connection with Rome. The letter offers an extended exposition of the new covenant promise of Jeremiah 31:31–34.

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JamesJames (traditionally the brother of Yeshua and leader of the ekklesia in Jerusalem) · Late AD 40s to before AD 62A letter addressed to the twelve tribes in the dispersion. It treats endurance under trial, being doers and not merely hearers of the word, the prohibition of partiality, control of the tongue, and warnings concerning wealth and pride, emphasizing a living faith demonstrated by works.Details

Classification: General Epistles
Author: James (traditionally the brother of Yeshua and leader of the ekklesia in Jerusalem)
Date: Late AD 40s to before AD 62
Place of writing: Jerusalem
Length: 5 chapters

Theme A living faith demonstrated by works

Outline

Chapter 1Trials and wisdom; doers of the word
Chapter 2Against partiality; faith accompanied by works
Chapter 3Taming the tongue; wisdom from above
Chapter 4Warnings against strife and pride
Chapter 5Warning to the rich; patience and prayer

Historical background

James presided at the Jerusalem council (Acts 15:13–21) and, according to Josephus, was martyred around AD 62. The letter is deeply rooted in the Jewish wisdom tradition and in the Torah, and it teaches a life that practises the perfect law of liberty (James 1:25). Its recipients are understood to be Jewish believers in the Messiah living outside the land of Israel.

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1 PeterThe apostle Peter (written with the help of Silvanus; some scholars regard it as a later work) · c. AD 62–64A letter to the sojourners dispersed through several provinces of Asia Minor. It exhorts those born again to a living hope to live in holiness amid suffering, to glorify God among the nations by good conduct, and to share in the sufferings of the Messiah.Details

Classification: General Epistles
Author: The apostle Peter (written with the help of Silvanus; some scholars regard it as a later work)
Date: c. AD 62–64
Place of writing: Rome (called Babylon in the text)
Length: 5 chapters

Theme A holy life sustained by a living hope in the midst of suffering

Outline

Chapters 1–2A living hope and the calling of a holy people; good conduct among the nations
Chapters 3–4Order in relationships; suffering for righteousness and the example of the Messiah
Chapter 5Exhortation to elders; final greetings

Historical background

The recipients were believers dispersed in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia (1 Peter 1:1). They faced social slander and suffering, and the letter describes their identity in the language of Exodus 19, a kingdom of priests. Babylon (1 Peter 5:13) is generally understood as a designation for Rome.

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2 PeterThe apostle Peter (traditional view; many scholars regard it as a later work) · c. AD 64–68 (shortly before Peter's martyrdom)A letter left by Peter as he faced death, exhorting believers to partake of the divine nature and to add virtue to their faith. It warns against false teachers and, against those who scoff at the delay of the day of the Lord, affirms the Lord's return and judgement.Details

Classification: General Epistles
Author: The apostle Peter (traditional view; many scholars regard it as a later work)
Date: c. AD 64–68 (shortly before Peter's martyrdom)
Place of writing: Rome
Length: 3 chapters

Theme Growing in true knowledge while awaiting the day of the Lord

Outline

Chapter 1Partaking of the divine nature; the certainty of prophecy
Chapter 2False teachers and their judgement
Chapter 3The promise of the day of the Lord; the life of those who wait

Historical background

Peter states that his death is near (2 Peter 1:14) and testifies as an eyewitness of the transfiguration. The letter shares much material with Jude and mentions Paul's letters alongside the other Scriptures (2 Peter 3:15–16). It was among the books whose acceptance into the canon came comparatively late.

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1 JohnThe apostle John (traditional view; the text names no author) · c. AD 85–95Against teaching that denied that Yeshua is the Messiah come in the flesh, the letter sets forth the marks of the true believer: keeping God's commandments, love for one another, and right confession. It was written so that believers may know that they have eternal life.Details

Classification: General Epistles · Johannine Epistles
Author: The apostle John (traditional view; the text names no author)
Date: c. AD 85–95
Place of writing: Ephesus (traditional view)
Length: 5 chapters

Theme Fellowship with God, who is light and love, marked by keeping His commandments and by love

Outline

Chapters 1–2The word of life and fellowship in the light; keeping the commandments and warning against antichrists
Chapter 3Children of God and love for one another
Chapter 4Testing the spirits; God is love
Chapter 5The faith that overcomes; assurance of eternal life

Historical background

The letter presupposes a situation in which some had departed from the community (1 John 2:19). These are generally associated with an early docetic tendency that denied Yeshua's coming in the flesh. It is closely linked in vocabulary and themes to the Gospel of John, and it defines sin as lawlessness, anomia (1 John 3:4).

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2 JohnThe elder; traditionally the apostle John · c. AD 85–95A short letter addressed to the elect lady and her children. It exhorts them to love expressed by walking according to the commandments and warns them not to receive deceivers who deny that Yeshua the Messiah has come in the flesh.Details

Classification: General Epistles · Johannine Epistles
Author: The elder; traditionally the apostle John
Date: c. AD 85–95
Place of writing: Ephesus (traditional view)
Length: 1 chapter

Theme Walking in truth and love, and guarding against deceivers

Outline

Verses 1–3Greeting
Verses 4–6Love that walks according to the commandments
Verses 7–11Warning against deceivers
Verses 12–13Plans to visit; greetings

Historical background

The elect lady may be an individual, but many scholars understand the expression as a designation for a local ekklesia (church) and its members. The early practice of receiving itinerant teachers into the home forms the background. The letter addresses the same false teaching as 1 John.

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3 JohnThe elder; traditionally the apostle John · c. AD 85–95A personal letter from the elder to Gaius. It commends Gaius for walking in the truth and showing hospitality to itinerant missionaries, rebukes Diotrephes for rejecting the elder's authority and refusing to receive the brothers, and commends Demetrius.Details

Classification: General Epistles · Johannine Epistles
Author: The elder; traditionally the apostle John
Date: c. AD 85–95
Place of writing: Ephesus (traditional view)
Length: 1 chapter

Theme Partnership through hospitality toward those who labour for the truth

Outline

Verses 1–8Commendation of Gaius; hospitality to travellers
Verses 9–10Rebuke of Diotrephes
Verses 11–15Commendation of Demetrius; greetings

Historical background

The background is the activity of itinerant workers who went out for the sake of the Name, accepting nothing from the Gentiles (3 John 1:7). The letter is regarded as an early witness to tension between a local leader of the ekklesia (church) and apostolic authority. It is among the shortest books of the New Testament.

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JudeJude, the brother of James (traditionally the brother of Yeshua) · c. AD 60–80A short letter urging believers to contend earnestly for the faith once for all delivered to the saints. It warns against those who had crept in and turned grace into a pretext for licentiousness, citing examples of judgement from the Hebrew Scriptures and Jewish tradition, and exhorts believers to keep themselves in the love of God.Details

Classification: General Epistles
Author: Jude, the brother of James (traditionally the brother of Yeshua)
Date: c. AD 60–80
Length: 1 chapter

Theme Contending for the faith once for all delivered

Outline

Verses 1–4Greeting and purpose of the letter
Verses 5–16Examples of judgement upon the ungodly
Verses 17–23Exhortations to the believers
Verses 24–25Doxology

Historical background

The author introduces himself as the brother of James (Jude 1:1) and is traditionally identified with Jude the brother of Yeshua (Mark 6:3). He cites the wilderness generation, Sodom and Gomorrah, Cain, Balaam, and Korah, and draws on traditions found in contemporary Jewish literature such as 1 Enoch. The letter overlaps considerably with 2 Peter 2.

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Revelation

RevelationJohn (traditionally the apostle John; some scholars identify him as another John) · c. AD 95 (under Emperor Domitian; some scholars propose the late 60s)The revelation of Yeshua the Messiah received by John in exile on Patmos. It begins with messages to the seven ekklesiai (churches) of Asia, proceeds through the vision of the heavenly throne and the judgements of the seven seals, seven trumpets, and seven bowls, and concludes with the fall of Babylon, the return of the Messiah, the new heavens and new earth, and the New Jerusalem.Details

Classification: Prophecy · Apocalyptic
Author: John (traditionally the apostle John; some scholars identify him as another John)
Date: c. AD 95 (under Emperor Domitian; some scholars propose the late 60s)
Place of writing: The island of Patmos
Length: 22 chapters

Theme The final victory of God on the throne and of the Lamb, and the renewal of all things

Outline

Chapter 1The vision of one like a son of man
Chapters 2–3Messages to the seven ekklesiai
Chapters 4–11The heavenly throne; the seven seals and seven trumpets
Chapters 12–16The woman and the dragon; the two beasts; the seven bowls
Chapters 17–20The fall of Babylon; the return and thousand-year reign of the Messiah; the final judgement
Chapters 21–22The new heavens and new earth; the New Jerusalem

Historical background

Set against the imperial cult and persecution of the Roman Empire, the book was sent to seven communities in Asia Minor: Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea. It is apocalyptic literature that draws extensively on the prophecies and symbols of the Hebrew Scriptures, including Daniel, Ezekiel, Isaiah, and Zechariah. It speaks of the saints who keep the commandments of God and hold the testimony of Yeshua (Revelation 12:17; 14:12).

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The complete Bible, sixty-six books

Old Testament

Torah · Books of Moses5 books

History12 books

Poetry and Wisdom5 books

Major Prophets5 books

Minor Prophets12 books

New Testament

Gospels and Acts5 books

Letters of Paul13 books

General Letters8 books

Revelation1 book

The Bible in chronological order

The Patriarchs

The Exodus and the Wilderness

Settlement and the Judges

The United Kingdom

The Divided Kingdom

The Last Years of Judah

The Babylonian Exile

Return and Restoration

Between the Testaments

The Life of Yeshua

The Ekklesia Begins and Spreads

Paul in Prison; the Gospels Written

After the Temple — the Close of the Apostolic Age

Introduction to each book

Torah · Books of Moses

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History

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Poetry and Wisdom

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Major Prophets

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